Solution

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a chronic disease characterized by a relative or absolute deficiency of insulin in the body, a decrease in the sensitivity of target cells to insulin, or structural defects in insulin itself, resulting in disorders of carbohydrate, fat and protein metabolism. The main features of diabetes mellitus are hyperglycemia and glycosuria. Clinically, diabetes is characterized by the three P’s and one loss, that is, polydipsia, polyphagia, polyuria and weight loss. Diabetes can lead to morphological and structural changes and dysfunction in multiple tissues or organs, along with serious consequences such as ketoacidosis, blindness and renal failure. The incidence of diabetes continues to rise, which has become a global public health problem, with a wide and far-reaching impact

Alzheimer's disease (AD), commonly known as senile dementia, is a chronic disease that slowly damages neurons and causes severe cognitive impairment. It is like an eraser in the patient's brain, gradually wiping away their memories and leaving a blank. Although since Alois Alzheimer reported the first case in 1907, our understanding of the pathogenesis and conceptualization of AD has improved significantly, there is still no cure for the disease at present. Treatments mainly focus on relieving symptoms and it is difficult to reverse the progression of the disease

Growth factors (GFs) are a class of organic compounds essential for the normal growth and metabolism of microorganisms, but which cannot be synthesized de novo from simple carbon and nitrogen sources. In general, growth factors include not only vitamins, but also bases, purines, pyrimidines, biotin, and nicotinic acid; they may also encompass amino acids required by auxotrophic mutants. But, the term often refers exclusively to vitamins. More specifically, growth factors are polypeptides that exert multiple effects by binding to specific, high-affinity receptors on the cell membrane, thereby regulating cell growth and a range of cellular functions. They are present in platelets, various adult and embryonic tissues, and most cultured cells, and exhibit a certain degree of specificity toward different cell types. In general, the growth of cultured cells requires the coordinated, sequential action of multiple growth factors. In contrast, tumor cells are characterized by their ability to grow autonomously, independent of external growth factors.

In 1975, a cytokine was first identified in the serum of mice infected with bacterial endotoxin or previously inoculated with Bacillus Calmette–Guérin (BCG). This cytokine was capable of inducing hemorrhagic necrosis of tumors without damaging normal cells, so it was named tumor necrosis factor (TNF). TNF is primarily produced by activated macrophages, natural killer (NK) cells, and T lymphocytes. The TNF produced by macrophages is designated TNF-α, while the lymphotoxin (LT) produced by T lymphocytes is referred to as TNF-β. Although the sequence homology of TNF-α and TNF-β is low, they bind to the same receptor. To date, the tumor necrosis factor superfamily (TNFSF) has been found to comprise 19 ligands. These ligands specifically interact with 29 receptors belonging to the tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily (TNFRSF), forming a complex ligand-receptor signaling system in which each ligand can bind to one or more receptors. Members of these superfamilies initiate a wide range of physiological processes and constitute a critical communication network for regulating the development and homeostasis of the immune system, nervous system, skeletal system, and ectodermal organs.